WHAT IS A CB1 RECEPTOR

Cannabinoid Receptor Type 1

This evaluation will explore a number of the relationships between the cannabinoid (CB1 and CB2) receptors and their ligands with the nervous system in health and illness. There are presently two identified subtypes of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB1 and CB2. The CB1 receptor is expressed primarily within the mind (central nervous system or “CNS”), but also in the lungs, liver and kidneys. The CB2 receptor is expressed mainly in the immune system and in hematopoietic cells, nonetheless further research has found the existence of these receptors in elements of the mind as properly. Mounting proof suggests that there are novel cannabinoid receptors that’s, non-CB1 and non-CB2, that are expressed in endothelial cells and within the CNS.

Expression

Once cannabinoid receptors had been found, it became essential to ascertain whether or not their agonists occur naturally within the body. This search led to the discovery of the primary endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid), anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide). Later on other endocannabinoids have been discovered, for instance 2-AG (2-arachidonoyl glycerol).

Brain

On the other hand, the study additionally found that CBD typically acts as a CB1 and CB2 antagonist, blocking cannabinoid receptors somewhat than activating them. Mackie’s lab demonstrated the position of GRK3 and β-arrestin2 in CB1 receptor desensitization utilizing Xenopus oocytes transfected with rat CB1. Attenuation of G-protein dependent Kir current, throughout an eight min exposure to WIN55,212-2, required co-expression of both GRK3 and β-arrestin2. In the identical study, truncation mutants of the whole C-terminus (∆418), or (∆418–439) didn’t end in receptor desensitization, while truncation at 439 and at 460 resulted in WIN55,212-2-induced receptor desensitization. In addition, S426A or S430A mutations considerably attenuated desensitization, while they had no impact on the internalization of the receptor evaluated in AtT20 cells treated with WIN55,212-2 .

Use Of Antagonists

Dense CB1 expression was found in fibres of the globus pallidus and substantia nigra surrounding immunonegative neurons. CB1 labelled neurons and satellite cells of the dorsal root ganglia, and myelinating Schwann cells within the PNS.

Ligands

It seems doubtless, therefore, that Δ9-THCV can activate CB1 receptors in vivo, albeit with much less potency than Δ9-THC. It can be supported by findings that both eΔ9-THCV and O-4394 can displace [3H]CP55940 from specific sites on mouse mind membranes and that their CB1 Ki values are slightly larger than some reported CB1 Ki values of Δ9-THC (Table 1). Cannabinoid receptors type 1 (CB1) are positioned at multiple areas in the peripheral and central nervous system, whereas CB2 receptors are positioned on inflammatory cells (monocytes, B/T cells, mast cells). CB2 activation results in a discount in inflammatory mediator release, plasma extravasation, and sensory terminal sensitization.

In addition, for the reason that density or coupling efficiency of CB1 receptors is bigger in some central neurons than in others (see above textual content), it is doubtless that the extent to which Δ9-THC prompts or blocks central CB1 receptors is not going to be the same for all CB1-expressing neuronal pathways of the mind. Cannabis sativa is the source of a singular set of compounds known collectively as plant cannabinoids or phytocannabinoids.

The binding of a ligand induces distinct conformational modifications within the receptor, which will eventually translate into distinct intracellular signaling pathways via coupling to specific intracellular effector proteins. Ligand specificity and selectivity, complicated mobile components, and the concomitant expression of other proteins (which both regulate the CB1 receptor or are regulated by the CB1 receptor) will affect the therapeutic consequence of its concentrating on. This evaluate will focus on the structural features of the CB1 receptor, mutations known to bias its signaling, and reported research of CB1 receptor ligands to regulate its specific signaling. It is now well established that Δ9-THC is a cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptor partial agonist and that depending on the expression degree and coupling effectivity of those receptors it will either activate them or block their activation by other cannabinoids.

Interestingly, activation of the CB1 receptor may assist reduce the development of HD. In basic, the in vivo and in vitro data recommend that CB agonist with particular pharmacological profiles (biased in direction of BDNF upregulation and release) might be developed to deal with or ameliorate HD. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) performs key modulatory roles during synaptic plasticity and homeostatic processes in the brain. However, the widespread expression and complex roles of a number of elements of the ECS in excitatory and inhibitory transmission makes the development of such remedy highly difficult (Di Marzo, 2008).

Binding Affinities

In conclusion, our study exhibits that CB1 receptor antagonists hold promise for the therapy of liver fibrosis. The endocannabinoid system is a regulatory pathway consisting of two major kinds of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2) and their endogenous ligands, the endocannabinoids. The CB1 receptor is extremely expressed in the central and peripheral nervous techniques (PNS) in mammalians and is involved in neuromodulatory features. Since endocannabinoids have been proven to be elevated in cerebrospinal fluid of epileptic canine, knowledge concerning the species specific CB receptor expression in the nervous system is required. Therefore, we assessed the spatial distribution of CB1 receptors within the normal canine CNS and PNS.

In experimental models of AD, several findings point out that the activation of each CB1 receptors and CB2 receptors may need beneficial effects mainly by way of neuroprotection against Aβ toxicity as previously noted for other neurodegenerative issues. Since CB1 receptors are not likely immediately activated by CBD, the impression on Tau phosphorylation could also be via the antioxidant effect of CBD or maybe as a CB receptor independent effect. A discount in harmful β-amyloid peptide and tau phosphorylation, whereas selling intrinsic CNS repair mechanisms could take place consecutively because of activation of the immune and CNS CB system in AD (Aso and Ferrer, 2014). The cannabis plant incorporates more than 60 different energetic artificial ligands for CB1/2 (CBs) with Δ9-THC being the major psychoactive molecule among them (Brenneisen, 2007).

G-proteins, located on the inside of the cell, bind to the tail of a CB1 receptor, and are released to deliver messages when the CB1 receptor is activated by an agonist molecule like THC. The body’s most studied cannabinoid receptors are the Cannabinoid-1 and Cannabinoid-2 receptors (CB1 and CB2). CB1 receptors are largely discovered within the central nervous system, where they regulate all kinds of brain capabilities, and sporadically all through the physique together with within the pores and skin. Anandamide and a pair of-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), the two most distinguished endogenous cannabinoids, or cannabinoids produced within the body, each bind to CB1 receptors. In vitro studies on the consequences of GRKs and arrestins on CB1 receptor signaling, desensitization, and internalization will be discussed in later sections.

Important latest findings with Δ9-THCV have been that it could possibly induce each CB1 receptor antagonism in vivo and in vitro and signs of CB2 receptor activation in vitro at concentrations within the low nanomolar range. Further analysis is now required to ascertain whether this phytocannabinoid additionally behaves as a potent CB2 receptor agonist in vivo. Thus, a medicine that blocks CB1 receptors but activates CB2 receptors has potential for the administration of sure disorders that embody chronic liver disease and in addition obesity when this is related to irritation. The bases for the ligand and tissue dependency that Δ9-THCV displays as an antagonist of CB1/CB2 receptor agonists in vitro additionally warrant further research. In addition, in view of the structural similarity of Δ9-THCV to Δ9-THC, it will be essential to find out the extent to which Δ9-THCV shares the flexibility of Δ9-THC, and certainly of CBD, to work together with pharmacological targets apart from CB1 or CB2 receptors at concentrations within the nanomolar or low micromolar vary.

Thus, Δ9-THC, particularly when administered repeatedly, shares the flexibility of other CB1/CB2 receptor agonists to scale back CB1 receptor density and coupling efficiency in a fashion that can provide rise to tolerance to a lot of its in vivo effects, including reminiscence disruption, decreased locomotion and antinociception. Such upregulation of cannabinoid CB1 or CB2 receptors is anticipated to improve the selectivity and effectiveness of a cannabinoid receptor agonist as a therapeutic agent, particularly when it is a partial agonist corresponding to Δ9-THC. Thus, although an increase in receptor density will augment the potencies of both full and partial agonists, it’ll typically also enhance the scale of the maximal response to a partial agonist without affecting the maximal response to a full agonist. It was discovered that this enhance in CB1 expression stage was accompanied not solely by a leftward shift in the log dose–response curve of cannabinol but in addition by a rise within the size of its maximal impact.

These results demonstrate for the primary time the spatial distribution of CB1 receptors in the wholesome canine CNS and PNS. These outcomes can be utilized as a basis for further research aiming to elucidate the physiological penalties of this specific anatomical and mobile distribution.

The extent to which the balance between cannabinoid receptor agonism and antagonism following in vivo administration of Δ9-THC is influenced by the conversion of this cannabinoid into the more potent cannabinoid receptor agonist, 11-OH-Δ9-THC, additionally merits investigation. was apparently the first investigator to acquire an active extract from the leaves and flowers of hemp. described the preparation of an ethanol extract that on evaporation of the solvent gave a darkish resin, which he named “cannabin”. Two forms of cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, answerable for the results of THC were discovered and cloned within the early Nineties.

It also soon turned clear that CB1 receptors are situated primarily in central and peripheral neurons and CB2 receptors predominantly in immune cells. Together with their receptors, these and other extra recently found endocannabinoids (Pertwee, 2005b) constitute what’s now usually referred to as the ‘endocannabinoid system’. Because Δ9-THC has comparatively low cannabinoid receptor efficacy, classical pharmacology predicts that its ability to activate these receptors might be notably influenced by the density and coupling efficiencies of those receptors.

It is, for instance, potential that there are some CB1- or CB2-expressing cells or tissues in which Δ9-THC does not share the flexibility of higher efficacy agonists to activate CB1 or CB2 receptors because the density and coupling efficiencies of those receptors are too low. These shall be populations of cannabinoid receptors by which Δ9-THC might as a substitute antagonize agonists that possess higher CB1 or CB2 efficacy when these are administered exogenously or launched endogenously. It is noteworthy, due to this fact, that both the density and coupling efficiencies of CB1 receptors differ widely inside the mind. CB1 receptors are also distributed inside the mammalian mind in a species-dependent method. A cannabinoid receptor antagonist, also known simply as a cannabinoid antagonist or as an anticannabinoid, is a kind of cannabinoidergic drug that binds to cannabinoid receptors (CBR) and prevents their activation by endocannabinoids.

Activation of peripheral CB1 receptors leads to a reduction in the release of pro-inflammatory terminal peptides and a discount in terminal sensitivity. Activation of central CB1 receptors leads to lowered dorsal horn excitability and activates descending inhibitory pathways within the brain. Inhaled cannabis has been extensively studied in numerous pain syndromes with mixed outcomes.

• Because Δ9-THC has relatively low cannabinoid receptor efficacy, classical pharmacology predicts that its capability to activate these receptors will be particularly influenced by the density and coupling efficiencies of these receptors.
• It is noteworthy, therefore, that both the density and coupling efficiencies of CB1 receptors range broadly inside the mind.
• These will be populations of cannabinoid receptors by which Δ9-THC may as an alternative antagonize agonists that possess higher CB1 or CB2 efficacy when these are administered exogenously or released endogenously.
• Together with their receptors, these and different more lately discovered endocannabinoids (Pertwee, 2005b) represent what is now usually referred to as the ‘endocannabinoid system’.
• It additionally soon grew to become clear that CB1 receptors are positioned primarily in central and peripheral neurons and CB2 receptors predominantly in immune cells.

For example, CB1 receptors in hippocampus from patients with AD were not totally different from aged-matched controls. Limited optimistic behavioral outcomes have been observed in small scientific trials and pilot studies utilizing analogs of Δ9-THC (Aso and Ferrer, 2014). However, these conclusions were based on brief and restricted studies; additional work might be wanted to evaluate the protection and efficacy of CBs in AD.

CB1 receptors have been highly induced in human cirrhotic samples and in liver fibrogenic cells. Treatment with the CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A decreased the wound-therapeutic response to acute liver damage and inhibited development of fibrosis in three models of chronic liver damage. Genetic or pharmacological inactivation of CB1 receptors decreased fibrogenesis by decreasing hepatic transforming growth issue (TGF)-beta1 and decreasing accumulation of fibrogenic cells within the liver after apoptosis and development inhibition of hepatic myofibroblasts.

CBD is not able to activating the CB1 receptors, so it can be used to cut back the irritation that CB2 receptors take over, however the pain is just soothed by way of THC and the activation of CB1. CB1 receptors span the membrane, or wall of a cell with its active, binding aspect dealing with outward. Both endogenous and phytocannabinoids (cannabinoids from outdoors the body) discover active CB1 receptors and “unlock” them.

These findings raised additional questions in regards to the pharmacological and physiological function of the cannabinoid system. This revived the analysis on cannabinoid receptor antagonists which have been expected to assist answer these questions. The use of the cannabinoid agonist, THC, in its many preparations to enhance appetite is a well known fact.

CRIP1a has been reported to attenuate agonist-induced CB1 receptor internalization , and modulate CB1 mediated activation of G-proteins in a subtype selective manner . Its competition with arrestins for binding to the CB1 C-terminus has been proposed to clarify the inability of a truncation mutant (V460Z), expressed in AtT20 cells, to internalize, regardless of its capability to internalize in HEK2093 cells . Lack of β-arrestin1 expression in AtT20 cells must also be considered when comparing outcomes from HEK293 cells . In addition, V460Z or CB1 T461A–S469A transfected into CB1 knockout autaptic hippocampal neurons didn’t desensitize following WIN55,212-2 or 2-AG remedy, despite the availability of proximal phosphorylation websites in the mutated receptors . Dysregulation of the ECS can also be reported in experimental models and patients with HD.

The prevalence of obesity worldwide is growing dramatically and has an excellent influence on public well being. The lack of efficient and well-tolerated drugs to treatment weight problems has led to an increased curiosity in analysis and improvement of CBR antagonists. Cannabidiol (CBD), a naturally occurring cannabinoid, is a non-competitive CB1/CB2 receptor antagonist. And Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), a naturally occurring cannabinoid, modulate the effects CBD Bath Bombs & Soap of THC through direct blockade of cannabinoid CB1 receptors, thus behaving like first-generation CB1 receptor inverse agonists, such as rimonabant. CBD is a very low-affinity CB1 ligand, that may nevertheless affect CB1 receptor exercise in vivo in an oblique manner, whereas THCV is a high-affinity CB1 receptor ligand and potent antagonist in vitro and but only sometimes produces effects in vivo resulting from CB1 receptor antagonism.

Although 2-arachidonoylglycerol also possesses Δ9-THC-like CB1 affinity, it has been present in a number of investigations to show higher efficacy than anandamide and therefore Δ9-THC at both CB1 and CB2 receptors. Two kinds of these cannabinoid receptors have thus far been recognized and each are members of the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors. That implies that THC binds to cannabinoid receptors in your body and mimics the operate and role of endocannabinoids. Essentially, a THC molecule produces its effects by activating the CB1 receptor or CB2 receptor to which it binds.

The structure and stereochemistry of the phytocannabinoid, CBD, had been first elucidated by Raphael Mechoulam within the Sixties who then went on to devise a technique for its synthesis (reviewed in Pertwee, 2006). In distinction to Δ9-THC, CBD lacks detectable psychoactivity (reviewed in Pertwee, 2004b) and only displaces [3H]CP55940 from cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors at concentrations within the micromolar range (Table 1). Since it displays such low affinity for these receptors, a lot pharmacological analysis with CBD has been directed at looking for out and characterizing CB1- and CB2-independent modes of motion for this phytocannabinoid (Table three). Recently, however, proof has emerged that in spite of its low affinity for CB1 and CB2 receptors, CBD can work together with these receptors at reasonably low concentrations. The density and coupling efficiencies of cannabinoid receptors may be affected not only by the situation and nature of the cells that specific them and by disease but also by publicity to a cannabinoid receptor ligand (reviewed in Sim-Selley, 2003; Lichtman and Martin, 2005; Childers, 2006).

A subsequent examine in HEK293 cells, however, confirmed that the S426A/S430A mutant recruits β-arrestin2 to a similar extent within the WT receptor, suggesting the power of β-arrestin2 to be recruited to the distal C-terminus of the receptor . It is value-mentioning, right here, that β-arrestin2 mRNA has been reported to be expressed in each HEK293 and AtT20 cell strains, while β-arrestin1 mRNA was solely expressed in HEK293 cells . In a special research, remedy with WIN55,212-2 resulted in desensitization of the ∆419–460 rCB1 receptor transfected into CB1 knockout autaptic hippocampal neurons; the distal segment of the C-terminus (including putative phosphorylation websites at T461–S469) was, thus, instantly attached to the transmembrane bundle . Taken together these outcomes suggest that in MS, the neuroprotective roles of CB1 and CB2 receptors could be impaired and their enhancement might present new therapeutic approaches.

Like the CB1 receptors, CB2 receptors inhibit the exercise of adenylyl cyclase through their Gi/Goα subunits. CB2 can even couple to stimulatory Gαs subunits leading to an increase of intracellular cAMP, as has been proven for human leukocytes. Through their Gβγ subunits, CB2 receptors are additionally known to be coupled to the MAPK-ERK pathway, a fancy and highly conserved signal transduction pathway, which regulates a variety of cellular processes in mature and growing tissues. Activation of the MAPK-ERK pathway by CB2 receptor agonists performing via the Gβγ subunit in the end ends in adjustments in cell migration. That signifies that THC binds to cannabinoid receptors in your body and mimics the operate and position of endocannabinoids (cannabinoids produced by your body).

This reality led to the logical extension that blocking of the cannabinoid receptors might be useful in decreasing appetite and meals consumption. It was then found that the blockage of the CB1 receptor represented a brand new pharmacological goal. The first specific CB1 receptor antagonist / inverse agonist was rimonabant, found in 1994. Rather, cannabinoids bind to CB1 and CB2 receptors, where they act as both agonists—mimicking endocannabinoids produced by your body—or antagonists—blocking receptors and limiting their exercise.

It blocks cannabinoid receptors somewhat than activating them, which is why CBD is believed to counteract some of the effects produced by THC. CB1 receptors have also been the main target of intense research as a possible goal in AD. Changes in the expression levels of several parts of the ECS in submit-mortem samples from AD patients have been identified, though their position within the pathophysiology of the dysfunction is still unknown.

THCV has also high affinity for CB2 receptors and signals as a partial agonist, differing from both CBD and rimonabant. Whereas downregulation of cannabinoid receptors might cause Δ9-THC to supply antagonism somewhat than agonism, their upregulation is predicted to reinforce the ability of this partial agonist to activate cannabinoid receptors.

The endocannabinoid system has emerged as a promising goal for the therapy of numerous ailments, including most cancers, neurodegenerative issues, and metabolic syndromes. Thus far, two cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, have been discovered, which are discovered predominantly in the central nervous system (CB1) or the immune system (CB2), amongst different organs and tissues. CB1 receptor ligands have been shown to induce a fancy pattern of intracellular results.

Expression of regulatory proteins that bind to the C-terminus of the CB1 receptor may alter agonist-dependent/independent arrestin recruitment to the CB1 receptor. The cannabinoid receptor interacting protein 1a (CRIP1a) has been demonstrated to work together mainly with non-phosphorylated C-terminus of the CB1 receptor . CRIP1a is a 164 amino acid residue protein with a predicted palmitoylation web site however no transmembrane area, which has excessive expression in sure mind areas, including the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and caudate nucleus. In vivo co-expression has been decided using a co-immunoprecipitation technique from rat brain homogenates . Furthermore, CRIP1a colocalization with the CB1 receptor at presynaptic termini was additionally confirmed, utilizing immune-histochemical studies in transgenic mice cerebellum .

For a comprehensive review of the literature of MS from mannequin systems to scientific studies see Pertwee and Rog . There is proof that like established CB1 receptor antagonists such as SR141716A and AM251 (reviewed in Pertwee, 2005b), Δ9-THCV can block CB1-mediated results of endogenously launched endocannabinoids when administered in vivo. In view of the somewhat low-expression levels and/or coupling efficiencies of CB1 receptors in some central neurons, it is not altogether sudden that Δ9-THC has been found to behave as a CB1 receptor antagonist in some experiments. Pain reduction is one of the most typical effects of CB1, although it can technically be helped with CB2 activation as nicely. Typically, as THC activates this receptor, cannabis is a greater source of pain relief than CBD could be.

Exposure to Δ9-THC results in pleiotropic and typically paradoxical results in humans including analgesic responses, rest, dysphoria, tolerance and dependence (Mechoulam and Parker, 2013). Perhaps the complicated behavioral responses to Δ9-THC might be mediated by the selective activation of those completely different signaling cascades.

In contrast, CP55940, which has higher CB1 efficacy than cannabinol (reviewed in Pertwee, 1999), exhibited an increase in its potency however no change in its maximal impact. (−)-trans-Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol shares the ability of anandamide and a couple of-arachidonoylglycerol to activate each CB1 and CB2 receptors. Δ9-THC additionally reveals lower CB1 and CB2 efficacy than these synthetic agonists, indicating it to be a partial agonist for both these receptor varieties. In contrast, the affinity of Δ9-THC for CB1 and CB2 receptors does match or exceed that of the phytocannabinoids (−)-Δ8-THC, Δ9-THCV, CBD, cannabigerol and cannabinol (Table 1). It has also been found that Δ9-THC resembles anandamide in its CB1 affinity, in behaving as a partial agonist at CB1 receptors, albeit with much less efficacy than anandamide, and in displaying even lower efficacy at CB2 than at CB1 receptors in vitro.

Hepatic fibrosis, the frequent response associated with chronic liver diseases, ultimately leads to cirrhosis, a serious public health drawback worldwide. We recently showed that activation of hepatic cannabinoid CB2 receptors limits progression of experimental liver fibrosis. We additionally discovered that in the course of the course of persistent hepatitis C, day by day cannabis use is an unbiased predictor of fibrosis progression. Overall, these results recommend that endocannabinoids could drive both CB2-mediated antifibrogenic results and CB2-impartial profibrogenic results. Here we investigated whether or not activation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors (encoded by Cnr1) promotes development of fibrosis.

The discovery of the endocannabinoid system led to the event of CB1 receptor antagonists. Rimonabant blocks the CB1 receptor selectively and has been proven to lower food intake and regulate physique-weight achieve.

However, latest work on β-arrestin 1 KO mice indicates divergent roles of β-arrestin half of and proposed that β-arrestin 1 regulates receptor sensitivity in an agonist dependent method, with no vital effects regulating CB tolerance (Breivogel and Vaghela, 2015). Interestingly, our work and others also recommend β-arrestin 1 because the “signaling” arrestin for CB1 receptor. Although Δ9-THCV may not be a CB2 receptor inverse agonist, evidence has emerged recently that it’s a CB2 receptor partial agonist. Additional experiments at the moment are required to ascertain whether or not Δ9-THCV also activates CB2 receptors in vivo. Rather, cannabinoids like CBD and THC bind to CB1 and CB2 receptors, where they act as both agonists—mimicking endocannabinoids produced by your body and “activating” the receptors—or as antagonists—blocking cannabinoid receptors and limiting their activity.

In 2007, the binding of a number of cannabinoids to the G protein-coupled receptor GPR55 in the brain was described. As in the earlier experiments with Δ9-THCV extracted from hashish (eΔ9-THCV), O-4394 exhibits less potency than Δ9-THC in these bioassays. Pertwee et al. (2007b) additionally discovered that the antinociceptive effect of O-4394 might be attenuated by SR141716A at a dose (3 mg kg−1 intraperitoneal) at which this antagonist is anticipated to target CB1 receptors in a selective method and at which it additionally opposes Δ9-THC-induced antinociception.

This review focuses on the style with which three of these compounds, (−)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), (−)-cannabidiol (CBD) and (−)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ9-THCV), work together with cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. CBD shows unexpectedly high potency as an antagonist of CB1/CB2 receptor agonists in CB1- and CB2-expressing cells or tissues, the manner with which it interacts with CB2 receptors providing a possible explanation for its capacity to inhibit evoked immune cell migration. In distinction, it antagonizes cannabinoid receptor agonists in CB1-expressing tissues. This it does with relatively high potency and in a fashion that is both tissue and ligand dependent. Δ9-THCV additionally interacts with CB1 receptors when administered in vivo, behaving either as a CB1 antagonist or, at higher doses, as a CB1 receptor agonist.

On the other hand, in vivo research utilizing β-arrestin1 and β-arrestin2 knockout mice demonstrated that the β-arrestins regulate cannabinoid sensitivity and exercise in an agonist-selective (as well as in a region-specific) method . For instance, repeated administration of ∆9-THC to mice resulted in the differential upregulation of GRK2, GRK4, β-arrestin1, and β-arrestin2 in numerous regions of the CNS, whereas GRK5 and GRK6 levels in the identical examine were not affected . On the other hand, deletion of β-arrestin2 attenuated tolerance to ∆9-THC mediated antinociception, and decreased ∆9-THC-induced desensitization within the cerebellum, caudal periaqueductal gray, and spinal twine; but, it increased desensitization within the hypothalamus, cortex, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra . In a unique study, deletion of β-arrestin2 selectively enhanced the antinociceptive and temperature-depressive efficacy of ∆9-THC with out affecting the efficacy of different ligands, such as CP55,940, methanandamide, JWH-073, and O-1812 . On the opposite hand, the deletion of β-arrestin1 had no impact on the efficacy or tolerance growth (in tail-flick and rectal temperature assays) of ∆9-THC.